TOTAL QUALITY MANAGEMENT

TOTAL QUALITY MANAGEMENT
Quality
• A frequently used definition of quality is “Delighting the customer by fully meeting their needs and expectations”.

• John Ruskin “Quality is never an accident. It is always the result of intelligent effort. It is the will to produce a superior thing”.
. Total Quality recognizing that real quality requires all elements of the organization to work together toward achieving that end.

Need for Quality
• Quality has been the driving force behind all human endeavors.

• Quality has been the goal of an eternal through the corridors of human history
• According to saylor, “The total Quality Management philosophy provides overall concept that fosters continuous improvement in an orgnaization.
A collection of methods and practices adopted by an organization to achieve total Quality is TQM (Theory for transformation of organizations)
A system of continuous improvement employing participative management and centered on the needs of customers.”
Rhodes (1992) defined total quality as “value-based, information-driven management process through which the minds and talents of people at all levels are applied fully and creatively to the organization’s improvement.

Key component of TQM
Employee involvement & training
If the quality is aimed at people for whom it is being alone, so the employees also need to be involved and have to be trained accordingly.
Problem solving teams
Once the problem has been spotted the activities towards solving the problem can be done. But this cannot be done by an individual.

Statistical Methods
A statistical method helps keeping an account of all things that have gone in the management and improvement of quality.
Long term goals and thinking
In order to move in a certain direction, proper goals have to be set. These goals must be decided keeping in view the amount of progress to be achieved. Proper thinking must be decided the goals.

To recognize that system and not people produce in efficiency
It is of at most importance to understand that the system having defects leads to inefficiency of the people. But it is not the person who has to be blamed. People are controlled by the systems that are a part of faults of the system lend their blame on the people.

Deming, the father of TQM, formulated the principles of total quality management:-
1. Create constancy of purpose for improvement of the product and service, with the aim to become competitive and to stay in business and to provide jobs.
2. Adopt the new philosophy.
3. Cease dependence on mass inspection to achieve quality.
4. Improve constantly and forever the system of production and service, to Improve quality and production.
5. Institute training on job.
6. Institute leadership
7. Drive out fear so that every one may work effectively in the organization
8. Eliminate slogans, exhortations and targets, asking for new levels of productivity without providing the workforce with the methods to do the job better.
9. Institute a vigorous program of education and self improvement.
10.Put everyone in the company to work to accomplish the transformation.

MEANING AND NATURE OF SOCIAL CHANGE

MEANING AND NATURE OF SOCIAL CHANGE
Social change is prevalent and is disturbing feature of contemporary life. Role of social change, in modern times is greater than in olden days. Change is essential biologically and socially, as it provide continuity to human beings and to society.
Etymologically, the word ‘change’ means-an alteration, a variation, a variety, a shift from one situation to another. Situation, a modulation from position to another position and to get rid off from the old to new etc.
Philosophically, the ‘change’ is inevitable for all things which exist in the world. Philosophers believing in the existence of God say that all worldly things, which exist in space and time, are all illusory and temporary in this world. These things including human beings are subject to change. They come and go, and also come again. Those who believe in metaphysics have an ontological view that only God is permanent and all other worldly things are temporary. Though Empiricists who do not believe in metaphysics, do not challenge the concept of ‘change’. The Greek philosopher, Heraclitus said that ‘everything’ in this world is in flux.
Society is a composed of a vast and complex network of patterned human relationships in which all participate. When human behavior is in process of modification, it is way indicating that a social change is occurring. it is a shift in idea and perceptions on a mass scale.

Meaning of social change
Prof. R.B. Mathur explained the concept of social change in “The third India year book of Education – Educational research” (1964) in these words, “Social change refers to the modifications in the organization and behavior of the group as expressed in its laws, institutions, customs, modes and beliefs. The change may be gradual or sudden, evolutionary or revolutionary. When change is supposedly for the better, it becomes ‘progress’ which is essentially an evolutionary concept.”
According to B.Kuppaswami, “When we speak of social change we might assert that there is some change in social behaviour and in the social structure.”
Prof..S.P. Ruhela views social change as, “The term social change might imply changes in social attitudes, behavior, customs, habits, manners, relations and values of people, in social institutions and structures, in the ways or style of living.”

We can see the Social change in two broad areas.

Changes in social structure
1. Family structure: - i.e. Breaking of joint family systems and emergence of nuclear
family.
2. Institutional structure: - like the School i.e. Co-education, awareness of girls
education, use of technology.
3. Zamindari system: - i.e. Abolition of Zamindari system.
4. Caste structure: - i.e. Intercaste marriage.

Nature of social change
Social change is inevitable. Society is dynamic. It is in constant flux. Whether we want a change, whether we like it or not, times are moving fast. Change is the law of nature.
Following characteristics of the change reflect the nature of social change:
1. Social change may be sudden, slow or rapid.
2. All aspects or elements of the social structure may not change.
3. Social change may mean discarding some old things or elements.
4. Social change means addition of new things or elements.
5. Social change may be for the good of the Society.
6. Social change affects a sizeable population of the society.
7. Social change is fairly lasting.

Examples of social changes
a) Agriculture:-Traditional means of agriculture have been modulated to mechanized farming changing the subsistence agriculture to commercialized one.
b) Industry: - Our cottage industries and arts and crafts have been uprooted by heavy industry.
c) Law and jurisprudence:- our on the spot open justice system through Panchayat Adalats has been changed to the justice of evidence which takes longer time and many times guilty person roam scot-free in the society.
d) Social Institutions
· Our joint family system has been changed to nuclear family structure.
· Arranged marriages very often shift to court marriages keeping the parents unaware of these.
· Dowry has changed the concept of simple marriage, very often which result in bride harassment and burning.
e) Culture
· Our traditional culture has been replaced by modern westernized culture.
· Religious beliefs have been eroded by the belief of secularisms. Daily prayers practice has been changed to weekly Satsangs.
· Luxurious living taken place of simple living.
· Deep personal relations based on sharing, cooperation have been revoultionalised and changed by individualized impersonal living which mitigate the good personal neighbourly relations.
f) Transport: - Cart transport has been replaced by fast moving transport like motors, cars, trains, helicopters and aeroplanes.
g) Economy: -Old concept of self-sufficient economy of non-competitive homogeneous unit that is village economy has been replaced by profit market Economy.
h) Exchange system: - Old barter system of exchange has been replaced by money exchange.
i) Moral values:-Due to lack of religious faith the old concept of moral consciousness based on karma theory has been replaced by material economy which brought rampant corruption in the society.
j) Dress and fashion: - Traditional dresses have disappeared and people generally use western dresses.
k) Living: - Old ways of living have totally disappeared. Now people sleep late in the night and get up late in the morning. During the night they see cable T.V, V.C.R.
l) Food: - Old foods have gone. People prefer fast foods, bread, slices, sandwiches
and hamburgers in place of roti, dal and rice.

Social changes are causes by several factors. They are as follow:-
1. Cultural factors: - Changes in culture and influence social relationship. Culture gives
speeds and directions to social change. Like fashions, women’s liberation movement,
renaissance or reformist movements and Satyagraha, definitely cause a lot of social
change in diverse direction.
2. Psychological factors: - The psychology of the human beings may itself become the
cause for social change. Man by nature loves change, desired to invent new things. as
a result of this, attitude changes, customs, traditions etc. also go on changing in the
society in a continuous manner. This does not imply that whatever is new is considered
superior to the old.
3. Technological factors: - In modern age, Technological factors are among the pre-
dominant causes of social change is brought about mainly due to the following
technological factors.
Development of new methods.
Development of means of transport.
Development of means of communication.
Use of machines and industries.
Technology is nothing but applied science which helps in bringing social change with
the changing needs of the Society. In fact, when technology changes, it affects change
in values and when values change, they bring out the corresponding change in
technology. In this way, technological techniques as well as values are both the
essential basis of social change. Both are equally important and essential. Both
actively interact and bring about social change they have caused several far-reaching
social changes in the lives of people in developing as well as developing as well as
developed countries. Radio, television, refrigerator, car, aeroplanes, new
household gadgets etc. have completely changed our style of living, modes of
thinking and social relations and even morals.
4. Climatic factors: - Climatic factors led to the disappearance of the Indus valley. The
entire civilization collapsed and new civilization came up.
5. Demographic factors:-like imbalance caused by change in ratio of males and
females in a given population lead to social change. For example large numbers of
young male soldiers died in Europe during World War II.
6. Natural factors: - Natural factors like earth-quakes, volcanoes, floods, droughts and
floods etc may people render homeless and turning them into refugees, forced the
people to change their whole life style by migrating to other places.
7. Religious factors: - Religious reformer like Gautama Buddha greatly influenced the
social life of the people. Religious and social reformers like swami Dayanand and
swami vivekanada of the 19th century made the people of India conscious of their
social responsibility.
8. Political factors: - Political change like the end of foreign rule in India altogether
changed the social outlook of the people. New aspirations, ideals and values like
democracy, secularism and socialism became the cornerstones of social life.
9 .Other factors: - This included the appearance of new opinion and thoughts. E.g.
changes in the attitude towards dowry, caste system, female education has resulted
in wide spread Social variations and modification.
Process of social change
S.P. Ruhela mentions the most significant process of Social change as under
1) Social mobility: - Social mobility means position in social sphere. This mobility occurs in vertical or horizontal directions. It can be individual or group mobility implies movements. Like rise in status, position, income and economic condition etc. horizontal mobility means change in place without accompanying rise in social or economic status.
2) Modernization: - Definition by Wilbert E Moore, “What is involved in modernization is a ‘total’ transformation of a tradition or pre-modern society into the types of technology that characterize the advanced economically prosperous and relatively politically stable nations of the western world.”
The process of Modernization emphasizes:
v Value change is a pre-requisite for Modernization.
v Positive attitude towards work, wealth, savings, investments, risk-taking, industrialization, material development and development of knowledge.
v Adopt science and technology knowledge in life.
v Change in the traditional thinking, ideas and values. change in the economic, social, political and election system
v Modernization emphasizes material development and change in thinking.
v use of gadgets but attitudes same is not Modernization.
Eg:-A lady washes clothes in the washing machine with ghoonghat.
3) Westernization: - “This is a process of social change by which the culture,
traditions, styles of living and values of the westerners in general and the British in
particular considerably affected the traditional, Indian culture and society, under
the impact of the British rule and the education introduced by them.

The impact /influence of Westernization in India are seen in various aspects
Establishment of scientific, technological and educational institutions e.g. railways, postal facilities, newspaper media.
Acceptance of western manners.
Habits in matters of food, dress, amusement, etiquettes and even morals(clubs)
Breaking of joint family system.
New professions emerged on the basis of system education. E.g. Lawyer, Manager, Clerks, Doctor.
Professions were based on education and not caste.
A movement for social reforms based on western education. E.g. Widow marriage, removal of untouchability.
A new class emerged which believed and adopted English political system, economic System (industries were set up), legal system and culture.
Acculturation of western culture in the Indian culture (through education and culture), western thinking was adopted, and liberal thinking was adopted.
A new class which was English/western educated being dominating.

Negative influences
· Blind imitation and influences of western culture lead to decline of Indian values and culture.
· Freedom was sometimes used without responsibility and sometimes without immorality especially by young people.
· Superiority of English educated class.
4) Urbanization: - A significant feature of this change is the continuous migration
from rural areas to the urban areas. Urbanization leads to growth of towns, cities and urban centers, industrial towns, business projects, educational, commercial etc.
Urbanization has many positive influences.
Ø Rise in income and in standard of living.
Ø Extension of educational institutions.
Ø Extension of civic amenities like roads, hospitals, banks, post offices.
Ø Integration of culture of different sates and region.
Ø Development of an urban culture.
Ø Broadening of thinking, values of acceptance of people, removal of traditional
and conservative and values.
Ø Areas surrounding city got developed.
Ø A competition in different facilities leads to improvement.

Negative influences
Rise in crime
Rise in trade union activities strikes.
Exploitation of labour.
Neglect of agriculture in rural sector.
Increase in slums, unhygienic dwelling.
Rise in pollution.
Problems of education-health centers for slum dwellers/over crowded classrooms.
5) Industrialization: - “It is the process of building up or establishing industries and the
accompanying social institutions and organizations of an industrial society.”
This process lead to several social changes e.g. - rise in trade union activities,
educational institutions, banks, roads, migration of rural population, breaking of family
unit, employment on the basis of technical skills and not caste, western education.
It also leads to various consequences like rise in crime, drinking, trade unionism,
agitations. It also leads to price rice, extension of roads, and other civic amenities,
educational institutions. It leads to employment to many people. It leads to
improvement in standard of living, purchasing, power of people increased. It leads to
better transport and communication.
6) Sanskritization: -In this process, low caste Hindu or tribe or other group attempts to
change its customs, ideologies, rituals and ways of life in the direction of a high caste.
7) Politicalization: - It is the process of Social change through the spread of knowledge
about political ideologies, parties and leaders. In this process of Social change, people
become aware of their rights and responsibilities.

Role of education in social change
Education is an important instrument to bring Social revolutions. Among all the instrument education is considered as the most powerful tool for all, at all levels.
Education commission 1964-66 begins with these words, “The destiny of India is now begin shaped in her classrooms. This, we believe, is no mere rhetoric.”
Education commission has further observed that realization of country’s aspiration involves changes in the knowledge, skills, interests, and values of the people as a whole.
This is basic to every programme of Social and economic betterment of which India stands in need. It has pointed out this fact as “if this change on a grand scale is to be achieved without violent revolution there is one instrument, and one instrument only that can be used, Education. Other agencies may help, and can indeed sometimes have a more apparent impact. But the national system of Education is the only instrument that can reach all people. It is a difficult instrument whose effective use requires strength of will, ‘dedicated’ work and sacrifice. But it is a sure and tried instrument, which has served other countries well in their struggle for development. It can give the will and the skill, do so far India.”

Relationship between Education and Social change
Education and Social change exhibit a relation which is three fold.
1. Education as a condition of Social change
The first form of relationship emphasizes that without the basis, foundation or ground of
Education, no desired social structure or place of social change can be erected. These must be Education as a basic condition and only that can any real social change or modernization be possible. if properly educated and well trained workers are not available to handle that sort of modern machinery, it is bound to cause several grave losses and mills in India where semi-literate and ill-trained workers are meeting numerous failures in increasing the quality and quantity of the goods produced by them and thereby, bringing about no real social change, modernization, progress or improvement in less at a superficial level due to lack of education.
Our constitution -makers had rightly realizes the importance of education and therefore, they had emphatically laid down in the constitution that the state shall be obliged to provide free and compulsory education up to elementary level to all its citizens within a few years of the implementation of the constitution.

2. Education as an instrument of Social change
It is not without reason that Education has received great attention at the hands of leaders, religious and social reformers. They have strongly advocated the use of Education as the most important agents/means or instrument of bringing about changes in the society.
Education is not for the sake of learning or knowledge only.
The British rulers in India introduced a system of Education in India which would enable the Indians to imbibe British culture and manners. Lord Macaulay, the architect of the British system of education in India, in a letter to his father in 1836 wrote, “Hindus are much influenced with education. There is no Hindu who may keep faith in his religion after studying English. “Earlier in 1835 in his minute on Education which was accepted
By Lord William Bentick as the basis system of Education in India, Lord Macaulay had written, “we must at present do our best to form a class of persons, Indian in blood and color, but English in taste, in opinions, in moral and intellect.” This indicates the importance of Education as an agent or means of social change. Religious and social reformers Raja Ram Mohan Roy, swami Dayananda and Vivekananda considered as the potent weapon of social reform. Freedom fighters, political leaders and statesmen like
Gandhiji laid great stress on Education for improving the economic and social conditions of the people.
Gandhiji wanted his scheme of Basic Education to be the main instrument of Social change. In his words, “The Basic School should be the searched of a non-violent social revolution”.
The well-known American philosopher and Educationist, John Dewey observes, “Education is the fundamental method of social progress and reform. This it does in two Ways: by guiding children towards new values and by assisting the development of intelligence in individual children and increasing society’s potential for its own transformation”.
In India the English education and westerns sciences help leader to introduce social reform like education for girls, sati provision, and widow remarriage.
Example: - Rajarammohan Roy, Ambedkar work influenced by English education.
Education is a peaceful instrument of social change. Some other factors like wars, natural calamities are violent.
Education is a gradual process and it brings a change in the values and attitudes of people thus the change it bring reaches all the people and last or a long time.
example:-People have become open-minded and accept people from different states, religions easily as friends.
Earlier the aim of education was socialization and preservation of culture but now it has to be more than that the reconstructions think that the Education has to play an important role in understanding and giving direction to the present society.
In the present global world learning to live together is important. So the values and the skills required to it must be imparted through Education.

3. Education as a product of Social change
Social reformers advocated several reforms for bringing about social change in the society. They called for the removal of superstition and ignorance. They encouraged the people to develop a sense of equality and self-improvement to improve their lot rather then depending upon destiny. They encouraged them to read scriptures and other books to gain knowledge and insight. They promoted rational and scientific thinking.
Swami Dayananad made the Vedas as the basis of social reforms. He asked people to read them thoroughly. For spreading his message, his followers opened a chain of educational institutions in various parts of India.
Raja Rammohan and swami Vivekananda urged the people to study western science and literature also so that they could acquaint themselves with the progress made by foreign countries.
Thus on the account of the emphasis on various aspects of social reforms, people began to realize that it was not possible to develop self-confidence, self-respect and status without obtaining education. The social reformers themselves started Educational
Institutions at various places to create necessary awareness among the people. Therefore, we say that Education is the product of social change.

EFFECTS OF GLOBAL WARMING

EFFECTS OF GLOBAL WARMING
This article is about the effects of global warming and climate change.The effects, or impacts, of climate change may be physical, ecological, social or economic. Evidence of observed climate change includes the instrumental temperature record, rising sea levels, and decreased snow cover in the Northern Hemisphere According to IPCC (2007a:10), "[most] of the observed increase in global average temperatures since the mid-20th century is very likely due to the observed increase in [human greenhouse gas] concentrations". It is predicted that future climate changes will include further global warming (i.e., an upward trend in global mean temperature), sea level rise, and a probable increase in the frequency of some extreme weather events. Signatories of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change have agreed to implement policies designed to reduce their emissions of greenhouse gases.
Effects on weather
Increasing temperature is likely to lead to increasing precipitation [12][13] but the effects on storms are less clear. Extratropical storms partly depend on the temperature gradient, which is predicted to weaken in the northern hemisphere as the polar region warms more than the rest of the hemisphere
Increased areas will be affected by drought
There will be increased intense tropical cyclone activity
There will be increased incidences of extreme high sea level (excluding tsunamis)
Local climate change


The first recorded South Atlantic hurricane, "Catarina", which hit Brazil in March 2004
Regional effects of global warming vary in nature. Some are the result of a generalised global change, such as rising temperature, resulting in local effects, such as melting ice. In other cases, a change may be related to a change in a particular ocean current or weather system. In such cases, the regional effect may be disproportionate and will not necessarily follow the global trend.
There are three major ways in which global warming will make changes to regional climate: melting or forming ice, changing the hydrological cycle (of evaporation and precipitation) and changing currents in the oceans and air flows in the atmosphere. The coast can also be considered a region, and will suffer severe impacts from sea level rise.
Biogeochemical cycles
Climate change may have an effect on the carbon cycle in an interactive "feedback" process . A feedback exists where an initial process triggers changes in a second process that in turn influences the initial process. A positive feedback intensifies the original process, and a negative feedback reduces it (IPCC, 2007d:78). Models suggest that the interaction of the climate system and the carbon cycle is one where the feedback effect is positive (Schneider et al., 2007:792)
Using the A2 SRES emissions scenario, Schneider et al. (2007:789) found that this effect led to additional warming by 2100, relative to the 1990-2000 period, of 0.1 to 1.5 °C. This estimate was made with high confidence. The climate projections made in the IPCC Forth Assessment Report of 1.1 to 6.4 °C account for this feedback effect. On the other hand, with medium confidence, Schneider et al. (2007) commented that additional releases of GHGs were possible from permafrost, peat lands, wetlands, and large stores of marine hydrates at high latitudes.
Acidification
Dissolving CO2 in seawater increases the hydrogen ion (H+) concentration in the ocean, and thus decreases ocean pH. Caldeira and Wickett (2003) placed the rate and magnitude of modern ocean acidification changes in the context of probable historical changes during the last 300 million years.Since the industrial revolution began, it is estimated that surface ocean pH has dropped by slightly less than 0.1 units (on the logarithmic scale of pH; approximately a 25% increase in H+), and it is estimated that it will drop by a further 0.3 to 0.5 units by 2100 as the oceans absorb more anthropogenic CO2.
Oxygen depletion
The amount of oxygen dissolved in the oceans may decline, with adverse consequences for ocean life.
Temperature rise
From 1961 to 2003, the global ocean temperature has risen by 0.10 °C from the surface to a depth of 700 m. There is variability both year-to-year and over longer time scales, with global ocean heat content observations showing high rates of warming for 1991 to 2003, but some cooling from 2003 to 2007. The temperature of the Antarctic Southern Ocean rose by 0.17 °C (0.31 °F) between the 1950s and the 1980s, nearly twice the rate for the world's oceans as a whole As well as having effects on ecosystems (e.g. by melting sea ice, affecting algae that grow on its underside), warming reduces the ocean's ability to absorb CO2.[citation needed]
Food supply
Climate change will impact agriculture and food production around the world due to: the effects of elevated CO2 in the atmosphere, higher temperatures, altered precipitation and transpiration regimes, increased frequency of extreme events, and modified weed, pest, and pathogen pressure (Easterling et al., 2007:282). In general, low-latitude areas are at most risk of having decreased crop yields (Schneider et al., 2007:790). With low to medium confidence, Schneider et al. (2007:787) concluded that for about a 1 to 3°C global mean temperature increase (by 2100, relative to the 1990-2000 average level) there would be productivity decreases for some cereals in low latitudes, and productivity increases in high latitudes. With medium confidence, global production potential was predicted to:
increase up to around 3°C,
very likely decrease above about 3 to 4°C.
Most of the studies on global agriculture assessed by Schneider et al. (2007:790) had not incorporated a number of critical factors, including changes in extreme events, or the spread of pests and diseases. Studies had also not considered the development of specific practices or technologies to aid adaptation.
Health
Human beings are exposed to climate change through changing weather patterns (temperature, precipitation, sea-level rise and more frequent extreme events) and indirectly through changes in water, air and food quality and changes in ecosystems, agriculture, industry and settlements and the economy (Confalonieri et al., 2007:393) According to a literature assessment by Confalonieri et al. (2007:393), the effects of climate change to date have been small, but are projected to progressively increase in all countries and regions.
With high confidence, Confalonieri et al. (2007:393) concluded that climate change had altered the seasonal distribution of some allergenic pollen species. With medium confidence, they concluded that climate change had:
altered the distribution of some infectious disease vectors
increased heatwave-related deaths
With high confidence, IPCC (2007d:48) projected that: the health status of millions of people would be affected through, for example, increases in malnutrition; increased deaths, diseases and injury due to extreme weather events; increased burden of diarrhoeal diseases; increased frequency of cardio-respiratory diseases due to high concentrations of ground-level ozone in urban areas related to climate change; and altered spatial distribution of some infectious diseases.
climate change would bring some benefits in temperate areas, such as fewer deaths from cold exposure, and some mixed effects such as changes in range and transmission potential of malaria in Africa. Overall, IPCC (2007d:48) expected that benefits would be outweighed by negative health effects of rising temperatures, especially in developing countries.
With very high confidence, Confalonieri et al. (2007:393) concluded that economic development was an important component of possible adaptation to climate change. Economic growth on its own, however, was not judged to be sufficient to insulate the world's population from disease and injury due to climate change. The manner in which economic growth occurs was judged to be important, along with how the benefits of growth are distributed in society. Examples of other important factors in determining the health of populations were listed as: education, health care, and public-health infrastructure.
Water resources
See also: Water crisis
In a literature assessment, Kundzewicz et al. (2007:175) concluded, with high confidence, that:
the negative impacts of climate change on freshwater systems outweigh the benefits. All of the regions assessed in the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report (Africa, Asia, Australia and New Zealand, Europe, Latin America, North America, Polar regions (Arctic and Antarctic), and small islands) showed an overall net negative impact of climate change on water resources and freshwater ecosystems.
Semi-arid and arid areas are particularly exposed to the impacts of climate change on freshwater. With very high confidence, it was judged that many of these areas, e.g., the Mediterranean basin, western USA, southern Africa, and north-eastern Brazil, would suffer a decrease in water resources due to climate change.
Migration and conflict
An argument can be made that rising ethnic conflicts may be linked to competition over natural resources that are increasingly scarce as a result of climate change (Wilbanks et al., 2007:365). According to a literature assessment by Wilbanks et al. (2007:365), other factors need to be taken into account. It was suggested that major environmentally-influenced conflicts in Africa have more to do with the relative abundance of resources, e.g., oil and diamonds, than with resource scarcity. On this basis, Wilbanks et al. (2007:365) suggested that predictions of future conflicts due climate change should be viewed with caution.
With high confidence, Schneider et al. (2007:787) predicted that stresses such as increased drought, water shortages, and riverine and coastal flooding would affect many local and regional populations. With medium confidence, it was predicted that these stresses would lead, in some cases, to relocation within or between countries. This might have the effect of exacerbating conflicts, and possibly impose migration pressures.
Aggregate impacts
Aggregating impacts adds up the total impact of climate change across sectors and/or regions (IPCC, 2007d:76). The impacts of climate change across world population will not be distributed evenly (Smith et al., 2001:957IPCC (2007b:17) found that for increases in global mean temperature of less than 1-3 °C above 1990 levels, some impacts were projected to produce benefits in some places and sectors, and produce costs in other places and sectors. For some low-latitude and polar regions, net costs were projected for small increases in temperature. According to IPCC (2007b:17), a temperature increase of greater than about 2-3 °C would very likely result in all regions either experiencing reductions in net benefits or increases in net costs.

INNOVATION IN EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY

“Innovation in education is vital to developing the next generation of high-tech innovators," explains Gabriele Zedlmayer, vice president of Corporate Marketing and Global Citizenship, HP Europe, the Middle East and Africa. Technology can create entirely new teaching and learning experiences. That is why HP, as a leading technology company, is in a strong position to support education at universities and schools. IT is not only a subject in its own right; it is also an essential tool for learning and teaching learning management system (LMS) is a software application for the administration, documentation, tracking, and reporting of training programs, classroom and online events, e-learning programs, and training content.(Ellis 2009)
LMSs range from systems for managing training and educational records, to software for distributing courses over the Internet with features for online collaboration. Corporate training use LMSs to automate record-keeping and employee registration. Student self-service (e.g., self-registration on instructor-led training), training workflow (e.g., user notification, manager approval, wait-list management), the provision of on-line learning (e.g., Computer-Based Training, read & understand), on-line assessment, management of continuous professional education (CPE), collaborative learning (e.g., application sharing, discussion threads), and training resource management (e.g., instructors, facilities, equipment), are dimensions to Learning Management System.
E-learning (or electronic learning or eLearning) is a term that encompasses all forms of Technology-Enhanced Learning (TEL) or very specific types of TEL such as online or Web-based learning. Nevertheless, the term does not have a universally accepted definition[1] and there are divides in the e-learning industry about whether a technology-enhanced system can be called e-learning if there is no set pedagogy as some argue e-learning is: "pedagogy empowered by digital technology".
Educational technology is the use of technology in education to improve learning and teaching. Educational technology is also known as instructional technology or learning technology.
The words educational and technology in the term educational technology have the general meaning. Educational technology is not restricted to the education of children, nor to the use of high technology. The particular case of the meaningful use of high-technology to enhance learning in K-12 classrooms and higher education is known as technology integration
A blog (a contraction of the term "web log" is a type of website, usually maintained by an individual with regular entries of commentary, descriptions of events, or other material such as graphics or video. Entries are commonly displayed in reverse-chronological order. "Blog" can also be used as a verb, meaning to maintain or add content to a blog.
Many blogs provide commentary or news on a particular subject; others function as more personal online diaries. A typical blog combines text, images, and links to other blogs, Web pages, and other media related to its topic. The ability of readers to leave comments in an interactive format is an important part of many blogs. Most blogs are primarily textual, although some focus on art (Art blog), photographs (photoblog), videos (Video blogging), music (MP3 blog), and audio (podcasting). Microblogging is another type of blogging, featuring very short posts.
The SMART Board interactive whiteboard is a large interactive whiteboard that uses touch technology to detect user input – e.g. scrolling, right mouse-click – in the same way normal PC input devices, such as a mouse or keyboard detect input. A projector is used to display a computer’s video output on the whiteboard, which then acts as a large touchscreen. The SMART Board typically comes with 4 digital pens, which use digital ink and replace traditional whiteboard markers. The SMART Board digital ink operates by using an active digitizer that controls the PC input for writing capabilities such as drawing or handwriting.
Use of an interactive whiteboard is different from tablet computing. While tablet computing is more commonly used for display and as personal assisted technologies – i.e. graphic tablet, wallpaper, transportation time schedules, etc., – interactive whiteboards (IWBs) are commonly used in education – e.g. in classrooms to facilitate differentiated learning – and corporate settings – e.g. boardrooms for meetings, web conferencing or presentations.
The SMART Board interactive whiteboard operates as part of a system that includes the interactive whiteboard, a computer, a projector and whiteboard software. The components are connected wirelessly or via USB or serial cables. A projector connected to the computer displays the computer’s desktop image on the interactive whiteboard. The interactive whiteboard accepts touch input from a finger, pen or other solid object. Each contact with the SMART Board is interpreted as a left-click from the mouse. SMART Board interactive whiteboards are also available as a front-projection flat-panel Linear programming (LP) is a mathematical method for determining a way to achieve the best outcome (such as maximum profit or lowest cost) in a given mathematical model for some list of requirements represented as linear equations
The term Computer Assisted Learning (CAL) covers a range of computer-based packages, which aim to provide interactive instruction usually in a specific subject area, and many predate the Internet. These can range from sophisticated and expensive commercial packages to applications developed by projects in other educational institutions or national initiatives to simple solutions developed by individuals with no funding or support to tackle a very local problem. The amount of time and money invested in development is high and partly because of the very subject specific nature of the education market as well as the very personalised nature of the teaching process - particularly at FE and HE level - means that commercial success is difficult to achieve and work done in one subject area rarely transfers to others subject areas.display – interactive surfaces that fit over plasma or LCD
mobile technologies
With respect to technologies, ‘mobile’ generally means portable and personal, like a mobile phone. Many examples of learning with mobile technologies fit in to this description. Personal digital assistants and mobile phones are the most commonly used technologies for mobile learning, but they exist within the larger space of possible mobile technologies that can be broadly categorized on the two dimensions of personal vs shared and portable vs static.

Importance of English as a language

English is the language which is followed throughout the world and one can go to any part of the globe and carry out once job whatsoever it is without any difficulty from any quarter. the Importance of English as a language as below.

1. International language: - English is the most widely spoken language in the world and it is the mother tongue of nearly 320 million people and another 200 million people of the world use it is as their second language. Thus it is important language of the entire world because it is useful in establishing international relations with different countries of the world.

2. Window to science and technology: - The rapid progress that has taken place in the fields of scientific research, technology, engineering, medicine, agriculture, art and literature, industry would not be available to us, if we give up the study of English. Thus teaching and learning of English is significant.

3. Developing trade and diplomatic relations: - it is useful in developing trade, commerce, economical and diplomatic relations with other countries in the world.

4. Information about different custom: - it is useful in gaining information about different customs, traditions, culture, literary forms of the world languages through this language.

5. Source of acquiring knowledge: - it is important from educational point of view as
English is a direct source of acquiring knowledge of modern arts, science, humanities, technology etc. English language is similarly and equally important for politicians, scientists, doctors, engineers, journalists, businessmen and researchers as they can enrich their professional knowledge and experience by reading English books, journals etc.

6. Vocational importance:- study of English as a modern foreign language has tremendous vocation importance for us. It offers opportunities for many and varied vocations, like diplomatic and foreign services, business, commerce, medicine, teaching law, etc.

7. Recreational importance: - English is a good source of recreation and useful employment of leisure. Persons knowing English can enjoy the best stories, drama, novels etc. written or translated into English.

8. Link language:-another significant utility of English as a language can be observed in its service between different state languages, which serves the regional needs but as we deal in inter-state matters, the language of one region proves to be of very little significance in another state. Here comes its utility and people through the medium of
English carry out their trade, commerce, business relations, day-to-day state matters, national policies, discussions and similar other activities of common interest.

9 As a library language:- with the explosion of the knowledge, vast amounts of scientific and technological know-how have come out in the form of books, journals and manuals, which are mostly available in English language. The developing nations have to get this all, either in the form of translations or through the medium of English language.

Thus, English language serves as a link between various parts of the country and we can say that English as a language performs for important and utilitarian services viz. a.
International language b. Window to new knowledge c. library language and finally d.
Link language. It can say that most of the countries are using English language. India is also used English as an associative official language

THE 12 PRINCIPLES OF STUDY SKILLS

Principle-1: Believe In Yourself
Your brain is the most complex piece of bioengineering in the known universe. Every brain has genius capacity even yours. It takes time, effort and guided study to get access to this potential, but it is possible for anyone to do if he or she wants to use it badly enough.

Principle -2: Prepare
The difference between mediocre performance and excellent grades can often be the quality of your preparation. Preparing your study environment, your attitude and your focus attitude and your focus will have an amazingly positive impact on the effectiveness of your learning activity.

Principle -3: Organize yourself and your work.
Organize yourself and organize your work. Always have a plan for your study. Write out that plan. Review your plan constantly and revise it constantly.

Principle- 4: Spend time on what matters.
Set priorities and make sure you are spending time on tasks that will help you accomplish the goals that are those priorities. The manner in which you get there is the essence of planning.

Principle-5: Discipline yourself.
There is no substitute for self-control and discipline. The best study techniques, tricks and hints are useless if you have no will-power to put them into practice. It helps your discipline if you have goals, an organized plan of action and a strong belief in yourself, but you must also have the desire to keep at it when the going isn’t easy. This is how the study techniques become second nature and that’s when your abilities really begin to take off.

Principle-6: Be persistent
Just keep on keeping on. Persistence is more important than talent, genius or luck, all those will be useless without Persistence, but Persistence can bring success without them.

Principle-7: Divide and conquer
The concept of “divide and conquer” is central to successfully completing any large study task such as a term paper, preparing for final examinations or reading a thick textbook. Understanding how it works will have a wonderful effect on your procrastination problems.
Simply, you analyze the task, divide it into smaller separate tasks and make a written list of all the smaller tasks. The final step is to put the tasks in order of priority.

Principle-8: Become an information filter.
The skill of information is particularly valuable for college and university students. To survive and thrive in the midst of a university course load that can be overwhelming, you must become an information filter. It is not unusual for new students to panic when they first encounter the enormous amount of material to be read. When you practice good reading and note-making techniques, you becoming an information filter, you are leading to distinguish between what is important to remember and what is not.

Principle-9: Practice output as well as input.
To Practice output as well as input, it is helpful to think of the brain as a computer. The information you study is data input, the material is processed by the brain and you are required to create output in the form of lab reports, essays and exam answers. Unfortunately, our biological computers create output of varying levels of quality. It is not processed in the uniform, easily recallable units that get stored in a silicon chip.
To get the most out of the data, you must active4ly turn it into information that is useful. You must process it properly and practice output.

Principle-10: Do not fear mistakes.
Mistakes are the best teachers. Don’t be afraid to try something new just because you don’t think you will get it right the first time. Without mistakes we would not have any information about how to do better the next time. Each time you identify a mistake, you’ve learned something about your task and your brain remembers. Mistakes help you eliminate wrong ways and guide you to the right way. With fewer mistakes you also have fewer chances of finding the right way to new skills, ideas and feelings.

Principle-11: Use al l your intelligences to create study tools.
As you develop your own tool box of study skills, make a conscious effort to develop tools that make use of as many different intelligences (linguistic, mathematical/logical, musical, visual/ spatial, physical, interpersonal, intrapersonal) as possible. Combine as many as you can as often as you can.

Principle-12: Be active.
All the best human data processing and output practice using many of your intelligences have one thing in common. They require that you be active with the material. You cannot be a passive reader or listener and expect to get much out of text books or lectures.
This principle of being active rather passive extends to all aspects of studying, especially preparing for exams. Being active is the only way you can properly process information and practice output.

Life skill

There is no definitive list of life skills. The list below includes the psychosocial and interpersonal skills generally considered important. The choice of, and emphasis on, different skills will vary according to the topic and local conditions (e.g., decision-making may feature strongly in HIV/AIDS prevention whereas conflict management may be more prominent in a peace education program). Though the list suggests these categories are distinct from each other, many skills are used simultaneously in practice. For example, decision-making often involves critical thinking ("what are my options?") and values clarification ("what is important to me?"). Ultimately, the interplay between the skills is what produces powerful behavioural outcomes, especially where this approach is supported by other strategies such as media, policies and health services.
Life skill: A skill is a learned ability to do something well. Life skills are abilities, individuals can learn that will help them to live a fruitful life. Life skills are defined in the Targeting Life Skills (TLS) Model (Hendricks, 1996) as “Skills that help an individual be successful in living a productive and satisfying life.”
Meaning of Life Skill; The abilities for adaptive and positive behavior that enable individual to deal effectively with demands and challenges every day life (WHO). It further encompasses thinking skill, social skill and negotiation skill. It also helps the young people to develop and grow into well behaved adults.
Life skill education aims to provide students with strategies to make healthy choices that contribute to a meaningful life. Life skills are the abilities that help to promote mental well being and competence in young people as they face the realities of life. It helps the young people to take positive actions to protect them selves and to promote health and meaningful social relationship. Life skill facilitates a complete and integrated development of individuals to function effectively as social beings.
Life skill education is a value addition programme for the youth to understand self and able to assess their skill, abilities and areas of developments. Which also enable them to analyze their capacity to enhance the function in a most productive way. Life skill education allows the youth get along with other people, able to adjust with their environment and making responsible decision. Which also incorporate to build up their values and to communicate effectively. In many circles, reproductive health education, population education and family welfare education are interchangeably used to convey the same meaning. The main objective of life skill education is to enable the learner to develop a concept of oneself as a person of worth and dignity. It should help one to understand oneself and lead to growth in personal responsibility.
Life skill education is a basic learning need for all young people. It will help the young people to empower in challenging situations. Various skills like leadership, responsibility, communication, intellectual capacity, self esteem, Interpersonal skill

etc.extends its maximum level, if it is practicing effectively among the youth. We need to create life skill education as the cornerstone of various youth programmes. An effective implementation strategy will help the youth to practice it in their life. Specific activities like leadership training, communication, interaction, understanding self, making decisions, working with groups, socialization etc added the quality of youth.
Communication and Interpersonal Skills
Interpersonal communication skills
Verbal/Nonverbal communication
Active listening
Expressing feelings; giving feedback (without blaming) and receiving feedback
Negotiation/refusal skills
Negotiation and conflict management
Assertiveness skills
Refusal skills
Empathy
Ability to listen and understand another's needs and circumstances and express that understanding
Cooperation and Teamwork
Expressing respect for others' contributions and different styles
Assessing one's own abilities and contributing to the group
Advocacy Skills
Influencing skills & persuasion
Networking and motivation skills
Decision-Making and Critical Thinking Skills
Decision making / problem solving skills
Information gathering skills
Evaluating future consequences of present actions for self and others
Determining alternative solutions to problems
Analysis skills regarding the influence of values and attitudes of self and others on motivation
Critical thinking skills
Analyzing peer and media influences
Analyzing attitudes, values, social norms and beliefs and factors affecting these
Identifying relevant information and information sources

Coping and Self-Management Skills
Skills for increasing internal locus of control
Self esteem/confidence building skills
Self awareness skills including awareness of rights, influences, values, attitudes, rights, strengths and weaknesses
Goal setting skills
Self evaluation / Self assessment / Self-monitoring skills
Skills for managing feelings
Anger management
Dealing with grief and anxiety
Coping skills for dealing with loss, abuse, trauma
Skills for managing stress
Time management
Positive thinking
Relaxation techniques